The Modern Era
19th and early 20th century transformations: nationalism, imperialism, industrialization, and the ideas that would shape the 20th century.
Timeline Overview
| Period | Dates | Key Developments |
|---|---|---|
| Post-Napoleonic | 1815-1848 | Restoration, early nationalism |
| Revolutions of 1848 | 1848-1849 | Liberal/nationalist uprisings across Europe |
| National Unification | 1850-1871 | Italy and Germany united |
| New Imperialism | 1870-1914 | European colonization of Africa and Asia |
| Second Industrial Revolution | 1870-1914 | Steel, electricity, chemicals, oil |
| Belle Epoque | 1871-1914 | European peace and prosperity |
The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
Goals of the Great Powers
| Principle | Meaning | Application |
|---|---|---|
| Legitimacy | Restore pre-revolutionary rulers | Bourbons back in France, Spain |
| Compensation | Reward victors, punish France | Prussia gets Rhineland |
| Balance of power | No single dominant state | Buffer states around France |
Post-Vienna Europe
| Power | Gains | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Britain | Cape Colony, Ceylon, Malta | Naval supremacy, balance holder |
| Austria | Northern Italy, presidency of German Confederation | Conservative leader |
| Prussia | Rhineland, Saxony | Rising German power |
| Russia | Poland (Congress Kingdom), Finland | Eastern bulwark |
| France | Pre-1792 borders | Contained but not destroyed |
Concert of Europe
| Concept | Description |
|---|---|
| Great Power cooperation | Major states consult before acting |
| Congress system | Regular meetings to resolve disputes |
| Intervention against revolution | Suppress liberal/nationalist movements |
| Duration | Effective 1815-1848, remnants to 1914 |
Rise of Nationalism
What Is Nationalism?
| Element | Description |
|---|---|
| Shared identity | Common language, culture, history |
| Popular sovereignty | Nation should govern itself |
| Loyalty transfer | From dynasty/religion to nation |
| Territorial claims | Nation deserves its own state |
Types of Nationalism
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Unification | Bring divided nation together | Germany, Italy |
| Independence | Break from empire | Greece, Belgium, Poland |
| Imperial/ethnic | Dominant group rules others | Russian, later German |
| Cultural | Preserve language, traditions | Irish, Welsh, Finnish |
Early Nationalist Movements
| Movement | Date | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Greek Independence | 1821-1830 | Success, European support |
| Belgian Independence | 1830 | Success, broke from Netherlands |
| Polish Revolts | 1830, 1863 | Failed, Russian suppression |
| Italian Revolts | 1820, 1831 | Failed, Austrian intervention |
Revolutions of 1848
Causes
| Cause | Description |
|---|---|
| Economic depression | 1846-1847 crop failures, unemployment |
| Middle class demands | Constitutional government, press freedom |
| Working class demands | Better conditions, right to organize |
| Nationalism | Self-determination for ethnic groups |
| Conservative rigidity | Metternich's system couldn't adapt |
Revolution Spreads
| Country | Events | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| France | February Revolution, Second Republic | Louis Napoleon elected, then Emperor |
| Austrian Empire | Multiple ethnic revolts | All suppressed, neo-absolutism |
| German States | Frankfurt Parliament attempts unification | Failed, "revolution despised" |
| Italian States | Republic in Rome, revolt in Milan | All restored by Austria |
| Hungary | Revolution, brief independence | Crushed with Russian help |
Why 1848 Failed
| Factor | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Divided goals | Liberals, workers, nationalists wanted different things |
| Inexperience | Revolutionaries didn't know how to govern |
| Army loyalty | Militaries stayed with old regimes |
| Conservative recovery | Once shocked, conservatives regrouped |
| Class fear | Middle class feared workers more than kings |
Legacy of 1848
| Impact | Description |
|---|---|
| End of serfdom | Austria, Prussia abolish it |
| Constitutional forms | Many states adopt constitutions (limited) |
| Nationalism vindicated | Will be achieved "by blood and iron" |
| Socialism emerges | Working class develops own politics |
| Conservative lesson | Reform to prevent revolution |
Italian Unification (1859-1871)
Key Players
| Figure | Role | Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Cavour | Piedmont-Sardinia PM | Diplomacy, French alliance |
| Napoleon III | French Emperor | Military support against Austria |
| Garibaldi | Revolutionary | Conquered southern Italy |
| Victor Emmanuel II | Piedmont King | Became first King of Italy |
| Mazzini | Ideologist | Young Italy movement, republican ideals |
Stages of Unification
| Event | Date | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Crimean War participation | 1854-1856 | Piedmont gains diplomatic standing |
| War with Austria | 1859 | Piedmont gains Lombardy |
| Central Italy annexed | 1860 | Plebiscites join Piedmont |
| Garibaldi's Expedition | 1860 | Conquers Kingdom of Two Sicilies |
| Kingdom of Italy proclaimed | 1861 | Victor Emmanuel II king |
| Venetia acquired | 1866 | Austria defeated by Prussia |
| Rome captured | 1870 | French garrison leaves, capital moved |
Problems of United Italy
| Problem | Description |
|---|---|
| North-South divide | Industrial north, agricultural south |
| Regional identities | "We have made Italy, now we must make Italians" |
| Catholic opposition | Pope refused to recognize Italian state |
| Limited democracy | Only 2% could vote initially |
| Irredentism | Unredeemed territories (Trentino, Trieste) |
German Unification (1864-1871)
Key Players
| Figure | Role | Method |
|---|---|---|
| Otto von Bismarck | Prussian Chancellor | Realpolitik, "blood and iron" |
| Wilhelm I | Prussian King | Became German Emperor |
| Helmuth von Moltke | General | Military modernization |
Bismarck's Wars
| War | Date | Opponent | Result |
|---|---|---|---|
| Danish War | 1864 | Denmark | Prussia/Austria gain Schleswig-Holstein |
| Austro-Prussian War | 1866 | Austria | Prussia dominates Germany, Austria excluded |
| Franco-Prussian War | 1870-1871 | France | German Empire proclaimed, Alsace-Lorraine taken |
German Empire (1871)
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Federal structure | 25 states, dominated by Prussia |
| Emperor (Kaiser) | Prussian king, military commander |
| Chancellor | Appointed by Kaiser, not parliament |
| Reichstag | Elected parliament, limited power |
| Bundesrat | State representatives, real legislative power |
New Imperialism (1870-1914)
Why Europeans Colonized
| Motive | Description |
|---|---|
| Economic | Markets, raw materials, investment opportunities |
| Strategic | Coaling stations, naval bases, routes |
| Nationalism | Prestige, "place in the sun" |
| Humanitarian | "Civilizing mission," spread Christianity |
| Social Darwinism | Racial superiority ideology |
| Technology | Steamships, quinine, machine guns |
The Scramble for Africa
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 1870 | Only 10% of Africa under European control |
| 1884-1885 | Berlin Conference divides Africa |
| 1914 | Only Ethiopia and Liberia independent |
African Colonization
| Power | Territories |
|---|---|
| Britain | Egypt, Sudan, Nigeria, Gold Coast, Kenya, Rhodesia, South Africa |
| France | Algeria, West Africa, Equatorial Africa, Madagascar |
| Germany | Tanganyika, Namibia, Cameroon, Togo |
| Belgium | Congo (Leopold's personal colony, then Belgian) |
| Portugal | Angola, Mozambique |
| Italy | Libya, Eritrea, Somalia |
Asian Imperialism
| Power | Territory | Method |
|---|---|---|
| Britain | India, Burma, Malaya | Direct rule, trading companies |
| France | Indochina | Direct colonial rule |
| Netherlands | Dutch East Indies | Trading company, then government |
| USA | Philippines | Won from Spain (1898) |
| Japan | Korea, Taiwan | Joining imperial club |
Impact of Imperialism
| On Colonies | On Europe |
|---|---|
| Borders ignored ethnic groups | Rivalries intensified |
| Traditional economies disrupted | Economic benefits (debated) |
| Infrastructure for extraction | National prestige |
| Racial hierarchies imposed | "Civilizing mission" ideology |
| Resistance movements emerged | Militarism grew |
Resistance to Imperialism
| Resistance | Location | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Zulu Wars | South Africa | Temporary victories, eventual defeat |
| Mahdist Revolt | Sudan | Initial success, crushed 1898 |
| Boxer Rebellion | China | Defeated by coalition |
| Sepoy Mutiny | India | Crushed, direct British rule |
| Ethiopian Victory | Adwa, 1896 | Independence preserved |
Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1914)
New Industries
| Industry | Innovations | Leading Countries |
|---|---|---|
| Steel | Bessemer, open hearth process | Germany, USA |
| Chemicals | Dyes, fertilizers, explosives | Germany |
| Electricity | Generators, light bulbs, motors | USA, Germany |
| Oil | Internal combustion engine | USA |
| Communications | Telegraph, telephone, radio | USA, Britain |
Economic Changes
| Change | Description |
|---|---|
| Big business | Corporations, cartels, trusts |
| Scientific management | Taylorism, assembly lines |
| Finance capitalism | Banks fund industry |
| Global trade | Steamships, railroads, telegraphs |
| Mass production | Standardized parts, economies of scale |
New World Powers
| Power | Rise | Basis |
|---|---|---|
| United States | Post-Civil War | Industrial capacity, resources, immigration |
| Germany | Post-unification | Industry, science, military |
| Japan | Meiji Restoration (1868) | Rapid modernization |
Political Ideologies
Liberalism
| Principle | Application |
|---|---|
| Individual rights | Property, speech, religion |
| Limited government | Constitutional, rule of law |
| Free markets | Laissez-faire economics |
| Progress | Reform through reason |
| Suffrage | Initially propertied, gradually expanded |
Conservatism
| Principle | Application |
|---|---|
| Tradition | Preserve existing institutions |
| Hierarchy | Natural social order |
| Religion | Moral foundation of society |
| Gradual change | Reform, not revolution |
| Authority | Strong government, social order |
Socialism
| Type | Description | Advocate |
|---|---|---|
| Utopian | Model communities, cooperation | Owen, Fourier |
| Marxism | Class struggle, revolution | Marx, Engels |
| Revisionism | Reform within capitalism | Bernstein |
| Anarchism | Abolish all government | Bakunin |
| Syndicalism | Worker control via unions | Sorel |
Marx's Key Ideas
| Concept | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Historical materialism | Economic conditions determine society |
| Class struggle | History is conflict between classes |
| Surplus value | Workers create value, capitalists take profit |
| Revolution | Proletariat will overthrow bourgeoisie |
| Communism | Classless society, common ownership |
Social Changes
Urbanization
| City | 1800 Population | 1900 Population |
|---|---|---|
| London | 1 million | 6.5 million |
| Paris | 500,000 | 2.7 million |
| Berlin | 170,000 | 1.9 million |
| New York | 60,000 | 3.4 million |
Working Class Life
| Aspect | Early Industrial | Late Industrial |
|---|---|---|
| Hours | 14-16/day | 10-12/day |
| Wages | Subsistence | Modest improvement |
| Child labor | Common | Regulated |
| Housing | Slums | Still poor, some improvement |
| Organization | Suppressed | Legal unions |
Middle Class Growth
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Professions | Doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers |
| Values | Respectability, education, hard work |
| Consumption | Department stores, leisure activities |
| Politics | Demanded representation, reform |
| Gender roles | Separate spheres, "angel of the house" |
Women's Movement
| Demand | Progress |
|---|---|
| Education | Universities slowly opening |
| Property rights | Married women's property acts |
| Employment | Teaching, nursing, clerical work |
| Suffrage | New Zealand (1893), few others before 1914 |
Pre-WWI Tensions
Alliance Systems
| Alliance | Members | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Triple Alliance (1882) | Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy | Defensive pact |
| Triple Entente (1907) | France, Russia, Britain | Counter Germany |
Sources of Conflict
| Issue | Conflict |
|---|---|
| Alsace-Lorraine | France wanted return from Germany |
| Balkans | Austrian vs. Russian influence |
| Naval race | Britain vs. Germany |
| Colonial rivalries | Morocco, Africa generally |
| Nationalism | Pan-Slavism, Pan-Germanism |
Key Takeaways
Nationalism reshaped the map - Italy and Germany unified, empires faced national movements
Conservatives learned from 1848 - Reform from above to prevent revolution from below
Realpolitik replaced idealism - Bismarck's "blood and iron" more effective than liberal constitutionalism
Imperialism globalized European power - But sowed seeds of future conflict and decolonization
Industry created new social classes - Industrial workers and capitalists became central political actors
Ideologies competed - Liberalism, conservatism, socialism, nationalism offered different visions
Second Industrial Revolution shifted power - Germany and USA challenged British dominance
Social reforms prevented revolution - But didn't eliminate inequality
Alliance systems created dangers - Local conflicts could become continental wars
European confidence masked fragility - Belle Epoque prosperity ended in catastrophe